Full transcript
0:04this is chapter six we're going to be
0:06looking at bones and skeletal tissue
0:08this is going to be part one
0:10um the next chapter chapter seven will
0:11actually go into the skill at 10 itself
0:13and look at the names of the bones and
0:15the location of the bones but this is
0:17going to be focusing on the general
0:18bones and what makes up skeletal tissue
0:22so before we dive on into actual bone
0:24itself we're going to talk about
0:26skeletal cartilage so this is going to
0:29be a section that um will blend into
0:32what we've already talked about in
0:33previous chapters when we're talking
0:35about cartilage and connective tissue so
0:37when we're talking about this what we
0:38mean is that cartilage is going to be
0:40made up of this
0:41very dense tissue molded tissue is going
0:44to be primarily made up of water and
0:46it's going to contain no blood vessels
0:48and no nerves so all of our skeletal
0:51cartilage is going to be um
0:53surrounded by a layer of tissue and that
0:56layer will be called a perichondrium
1:00so cotton whenever you see this suffix
1:04chondrum essentially does mean
1:06connective so keep that in mind so it's
1:08going to be surrounded by a layer of
1:10perichondrium and this is going to be
1:12just a dense super dense layer
1:15of connective tissue
1:18and what this does it will act like a
1:21girdle and as it acts like a girdle
1:24it'll keep the resisting outward
1:27expression
1:29expansion whenever the muscle is or the
1:33bones are going to be compressed which
1:34is important because we do not want our
1:35bones to be able to expand
1:37um
1:38so this is going to essentially be a
1:40layer of connective tissue all the way
1:42around our skeletal
1:45and all of our bones
1:46so this perichondrium again you can see
1:49those details area and it does with
1:51resist against that outward expression
1:55so
1:56whenever we start talking about the
1:58other types of cartilage that are going
1:59to be involved in the skeleton these are
2:02the ones that we are going to talk about
2:04so as a reminder of the three types of
2:06cartilage are hyaline
2:10which is for providing support and
2:13flexibility it's the most abundant
2:16skeletal cartilage so that's super
2:18important and then we're going to have
2:20our elastic cartilage
2:24and our elastic cartilage is going to be
2:26responsible for stretch and have
2:28excessive amounts of elastin fibers and
2:31then we're going to have our fibro
2:33cartilage
2:34which is also going to be involved with
2:36stretch and it is going to be um
2:39specifically highly compressible with
2:42allowing for tensile strength so it's
2:44going to be the ability to be compressed
2:47so looking back at chapter four go
2:49review these two types of tissues the
2:51hyaline the elastic and the
2:53fibrocartilage what you need to know
2:55about these is and examples of where you
2:58can find these tissues in the body so
2:59hyaline cartilage can be found in the
3:01articular joints ribs larynx nasal
3:04cartilage of the nose this was all
3:06covered in chapter four elastic
3:07cartilage can be found in the external
3:09ear in the epiglottis and the
3:11fibrocartil edge can be found in the
3:13knee
3:14um
3:14inter-vertebral discs so
3:17that is going to be
3:19examples of where you can find these
3:21three types of cartilage but this image
3:23will actually show you where these
3:25cartilage is going to actually be found
3:27so you will see this here with all of
3:30these three types of cartilage right
3:33here
3:33and you can see that this is going to be
3:36in between some of our joints
3:39this is our external ear this is in
3:42between our vertebrae this is going to
3:44be in between our ribs you all of those
3:46are examples of where you can find these
3:48cartilage so cartilage is important
3:51because as your skeleton grows when your
3:54bones grow your cartilage also has to
3:57grow
3:58so we're going to talk about bone growth
4:00but this section is first going to talk
4:02about cartilage growth so what happens
4:04when your cartilage needs to grow there
4:06are two ways that your cartilage will
4:09actually grow the first way is going to
4:12be a positional
4:14growth
4:16and a positional growth is essentially
4:18when you are laying down new Matrix so
4:22remember this is going to be a
4:24connective tissue connective tissue is
4:26going to have a matrix and a ground
4:28substance so remember those go review
4:31chapter 4 on the connective tissue so
4:34it's a pop positional growth so with
4:37this type of cartilage growth you will
4:40have cells
4:42in
4:44your perichondrium which is outlining
4:46and around all of your actual bones will
4:49secrete new Matrix
4:52and as it secretes that new Matrix
4:55essentially what's going to do is it's
4:57going to secrete it onto the external
5:00surface of the tissue
5:03and as it essentially secretes it onto
5:06the external surface it is going to lay
5:09down new Surface it's going to
5:11essentially lay down new Matrix on the
5:13outside so it's going to be growing that
5:15way
5:16so you're going outside inside out and
5:19then another way you're going to grow is
5:20called interstitial growth
5:23and interstitial growth
5:26is where deep inside the bones you will
5:28have this structure that's called a
5:30lacunae which we're going to talk about
5:31in a second and they cune bound cells
5:35so these cells are going to be locked
5:37into the lacunae will actually secrete
5:41new Matrix from within
5:45so this is going to be an inside type of
5:48growth
5:49so one is going to grow the outside and
5:51one is going to grow the inside so
5:54interstitial is going to grow the inside
5:56where you're going to actually have lay
5:58down new Matrix expanding from within so
6:00that's the way cartilage can grow two
6:02ways so this is a really important
6:05statement right here
6:06the calcification of cartilage
6:09is not
6:11the same as bone
6:13so that is super important as we talk
6:16about hardened boned that the
6:20calcification of this particular
6:22substance
6:25so our cartilage it doesn't matter what
6:27type any calcification of cartilage
6:30is not
6:33the same
6:36as bone
6:37because this is still cartilage it
6:40starts from a different developmental
6:42cell bone will start from a osteoblast
6:46cartilage starts from my chondroblast so
6:49just because it hardens and starts to
6:52solidify does not make it the same as
6:55bones that's important so when we get to
6:57Bone we'll talk about that
6:58okay so real quick we're going to talk
7:00about General why do we actually have
7:03bones and what is the function of Bones
7:06so there are seven really important
7:09functions to bones
7:13that we're going to quickly run through
7:16because these are kind of common sense
7:18so the first function of bone is going
7:21to be the ability to support
7:23which is important because inside our
7:25body we have a lot of soft organs and we
7:28need to be able to support that soft
7:30organs your heart your lungs are all
7:32covered by your ribs
7:34your bones are also going to be involved
7:35with protection so this is going to be
7:38your skulls protecting your brains your
7:41brain your
7:42um it's protecting all of your vital
7:44organs you're also going to have the
7:47function of bones for movement
7:49so this is going to allow somewhere for
7:52your muscles to Anchor
7:54so you can actually
7:56lever and move your bones so the overall
8:00function of bone is to move our skeleton
8:02that all happens
8:04um with tandem with the muscular system
8:06so movement and being levers is
8:09important for this function and then
8:11another function that we may not think
8:13about all the time is mineral and growth
8:15Factor storage so your bones actually
8:18have the ability to store a ton of
8:22information so what your bones will
8:24actually store
8:27is minerals that your bones will store
8:29are going to be which I'm sure everyone
8:31is aware calcium and phosphate
8:35will be stored and released into the
8:38bone as needed so it's really really
8:40important and then growth factor is
8:42going to be important when you need to
8:44grow your bones
8:46another function of bone is blood cell
8:49formation so whenever you see the term
8:52blood cell formation the term is
8:54hematopoiesis
8:56and hematopoiesis means that you are
9:00going to form new blood cells
9:03and that will occur in your long bones
9:05but it will occur in a couple other
9:07places specifically within your bone
9:09marrow so this is going to be where you
9:11are going to
9:13blood formation
9:15hematopoiesis another thing that your
9:18bones are responsible for doing is
9:20actually going to be storing
9:21triglycerides and fats which is very
9:23important so not everyone's probably is
9:26aware of that but you will actually
9:27store a good amount of fat triglycerides
9:30in your bones and then another structure
9:33is a function is going to be hormone
9:36production so the primary hormone that
9:39is going to be produced by your
9:42bones is going to be osteocalcin
9:46and that is responsible that we'll talk
9:48a lot about is regulating insulin
9:52glucose and your overall metabolism so
9:55your osteocalcin is going to be really
9:57important with regulating your overall
9:58homeostasis when it comes to some of
10:01these hormone levels
10:03um so that's going to be an interesting
10:04thing that when we get there we'll talk
10:05about how that process works so these
10:07are the overall functions of bones so
10:11looking at 6.3 we have a bunch of
10:14different types of Bones and we're going
10:15to talk about how we actually classify
10:17them all so when we're looking at this
10:19there are 206
10:22bones in the human skeleton so this is
10:25actually going to be in the adult
10:28skeleton
10:30a child's skeleton will have more bones
10:33but then those bones will fuse together
10:35so 206 name bones in the adult human
10:38skeleton and these are going to be
10:41divided by location so
10:45you will have two types of skeletons and
10:48these they will be based on location you
10:50will have the axial
10:53skeleton and the axial skeleton will be
10:56anything that is on the axis of the body
11:00so this is going to include the skull
11:04is going to include the rib cage
11:07it's going to include your vertebrae
11:10so anything that is going to be
11:14on the
11:16axis
11:18of the body so this is those pieces
11:22whereas then you're going to have the
11:24axial
11:26skeleton
11:29and oh sorry the axial the appendicular
11:33and the appendicular skeleton will be
11:35all the pieces that are attached to the
11:38axis of the body so this is going to be
11:40your upper
11:42and your lower Limbs and it's also going
11:44to be how they attach so this is going
11:47to be
11:48we've got our axial skeleton here it's
11:51going to be your arms
11:54your legs but also shoulder
11:58and hip so that's going to be the two
12:00skeletons we're going to talk about if
12:01you look at this guy right here you can
12:03see where it is listed as axial and
12:06appendicular skeleton for all of those
12:09bones so everything orange is on the
12:11midline that will be considered the
12:13axial skeleton
12:19okay so now looking at the next way that
12:23we can classify bones that was how we
12:24classify the skeleton and where they are
12:28found but we can also classify Bones
12:30based on shape
12:34so if we classify Bones based on shape
12:37there are two
12:39um
12:40primary ones that are very easy to
12:42understand and then a little bit to me
12:44too that are kind of abstract so the
12:46first one is going to be a long bone if
12:50it is a long bone it will be longer than
12:52it is wide so an example of this is
12:54going to be all of your limbs you'll
12:56notice right here this is a
12:59long bone
13:02so that would be an example of that the
13:05next type you're going to have is going
13:07to be a short bone a short bone is going
13:10to be about as wide as it is long so
13:12it's going to be a little bit more Cube
13:13shaped we're kind of square
13:16you're going to find these in your wrist
13:18and your ankles so an example of this is
13:20going to be all of those pieces so if
13:22you're looking up here all of these
13:24right here are going to be those long
13:26bones
13:27and then we're going to get into the
13:29other two that are just a little bit
13:30more abstract to me
13:31three flat bones
13:34these are going to be
13:36thin and slightly curved so rather than
13:39completely flat like a sheet of paper
13:42they're not going to necessarily have
13:43this shape
13:45they will actually be more like this
13:48shape with a slight curve to it in order
13:50to support you're going to find the
13:52example of these mainly in your skull
13:54most of your skull bones but then also
13:56along your sternum your scapula and your
13:58ribs
13:59Okay the third type of bone sorry the
14:02fourth type of bone is going to be an
14:03irregular bone and essentially this is
14:06anything that does not fit into the long
14:08short or flat bones so these are going
14:11to be the complicated shapes anything
14:12that doesn't fit so your vertebrae and
14:14your hip bones are going to fall into
14:15this category
14:17so you can see all of those examples
14:19here with your long bone your flat bone
14:23your short bone what's about as wide as
14:25it is long and then a bone that just is
14:28irregular it doesn't fit into any of
14:30those categories
14:31okay so looking at the next section
14:33we're going to do
14:35the gross anatomy of bone and we're
14:37going to do bone structure so when we're
14:39looking at bone structure as a reminder
14:41whenever you see the term osseus
14:45it's going to be bone tissue
14:47so there's going to be a bunch of
14:49prefixes in this chapter that relate to
14:51Bone but whenever you see something
14:53that's got osseus in front of it it's
14:55going to be a bone tissue
14:58so there are three levels that we're
15:00going to talk about we're going to talk
15:01about gross microscopic and then I
15:04believe part two will actually cover
15:06um chemical
15:07so we're going to start with what is
15:09essentially a bone look like from the
15:10outside
15:11and this is going to be the gross
15:13anatomy of our bone
15:18so there are two types of bone
15:21two types when we're looking at it with
15:23the naked eye you're going to have
15:25compact bone
15:28and compact bone is going to be
15:30essentially what you think of when you
15:31think about the bone it is going to be
15:33the external it's going to be very
15:35smooth
15:37it's this typical bone that you think of
15:40when you think about bone but you have
15:42another type that is called spongy bone
15:46and spongy bone will be usually always
15:49found internal inside the actual bone
15:52and it's going to look more like a
15:54honeycomb or an actual sponge
15:57so when we're looking at this compact
15:59bone as it's more of an external that
16:01appears smooth and the spongy bone that
16:05is going to have all this honeycomb
16:06these Honeycombs are going to have a
16:08very important term we're going to talk
16:09a lot about trabeculae
16:12so this is a very important term and
16:14essentially what it is it's all the
16:16little Open Spaces inside our honeycomb
16:18or our sponge so if this were to be my
16:21sponge
16:23what we're saying a trabeculae is is
16:26that it is going to be all of the open
16:28spaces so that is one that is one that
16:31is one that is one so you can see all of
16:33these Open Spaces within my honeycomb
16:36that is your trabeculae we'll talk about
16:38that term a lot so you can look at it
16:40right here
16:41where we're going to have our compact
16:43bone on the outside it's this smooth
16:45layer and then you can have your spongy
16:48bone which does have that
16:51trabeculae
16:53very very evident so you can see that
16:55right there with the Compact and the
16:56spongy bone long bones are going to have
16:59both but not all four types of bones are
17:02going to have both Compact and spongy
17:06okay so looking at that that's where
17:08we're going to go next so we said there
17:10were four types of Bones so we're going
17:12to start with three these three are very
17:15very similar so we're going to look at
17:17this structure
17:19of these three together and it's going
17:21to be short
17:23irregular
17:26and flat bones
17:29so then the third the fourth type is
17:30going to be long bones so that's what
17:32we're going to cover next so the gross
17:33anatomy of these three are going to be
17:35all very similar so they're all going to
17:37have
17:39they will all have a thin plate of
17:42spongy bone
17:45and on this thin plate of spongy bone
17:50it will then be covered on the outside
17:53by compact bone so it's going to be a
17:57ham sandwich is what I like to call it
17:58so you will have your very
18:02outside thin layer of compact bone and
18:06in the inside you will have your
18:10thin plate of spongy bone so it'll all
18:13kind of look like that so when you're
18:15looking at this
18:16here's an example of exactly what this
18:19is you can see that right there with
18:21these guys so what's important about
18:23this is that it will be actually
18:25sandwiched between connective tissue
18:28membranes
18:30so there will be a periosteum and an
18:33endosteum and these are really really
18:35important
18:36so this whole thing this irregular short
18:39and flat bones will have two types
18:43of connective tissue that will be
18:46surrounding the inside and the outside
18:50so the first type is going to be the
18:52periosteum
18:54and the periosteum is going to be
18:57covering the outside of the bone
19:01Perry is going to be out so that's going
19:04to be a very thin layer of connective
19:07tissue around the outside of the bone
19:11so that's what this guy is is he's going
19:13to be my periosteum
19:16if this is going to be my
19:23Compact and my spongy
19:26there we go
19:28then we're gonna have our periosteum
19:30outlining the whole thing and then
19:32another type of um connective tissue
19:34you're going to have is endosteum
19:37and your Indus industrium is going to
19:39cover the inside and it's also going to
19:42cover all of your trabeculae
19:47so essentially all of these little cubby
19:49holes inside your cell are going to be
19:52outlined with a covering of endosteum or
19:56connective tissue so this is going to be
19:58your endosteum
20:01endosteum means Endo means internal
20:05Perry means a pawn so that can kind of
20:08help you give you the terms of what
20:09you're looking for there so all of your
20:12short irregular and flat bones are all
20:14going to have this particular structure
20:16so with this there is bone marrow
20:19scattered throughout this inside spongy
20:21bone there is no defined cavity that is
20:26very very important no defined cavity
20:30so you can see that right there and this
20:32is a great example of your trabeculae so
20:35you can see what those look like okay so
20:37that was our short irregular in our flat
20:39bones but what happens when we look at
20:41the gross anatomy of the long bone and
20:44this is going to be the primary type of
20:46bone
20:48that we're going to talk about that
20:50you're going to have so this is where
20:51the chunk of information is going to
20:53come from so the gross anatomy of the
20:58long bone so when we're actually looking
20:59at it like this your typical long bone
21:04will have a structure that is going to
21:06be this long shape so I'm going to go
21:08down here and show you this so this is
21:10your typical long bone type shape with
21:15this all of your long bones are going to
21:17have
21:20a shaft
21:23which is going to be called the
21:24diaphysis
21:27so that's this guy
21:32and then all will have two ends
21:36which is going to be called the
21:38epiphyses
21:39but then if it's plural epiphysis
21:43epiphysis if it's not plural and
21:45epiphyses if it is plural so if I have
21:48my shaft that
21:51here is my second epiphyses so this guy
21:54right here is going to be my diaphysis
21:59and my epiphysis so you can see where
22:02those are so I'm going to label these
22:04with my epiphysis right here
22:09in my diaphysis right here so this is
22:13the general structure of your exterior
22:16looking of your lung bone
22:17you're also going to have some membranes
22:20that we'll talk about in a second so
22:23your diaphysis is going to be the
22:24tubular shaft that's the axis of the
22:26bone and it is actually going to consist
22:28of Ace with a compact bone surround
22:34Central medullary cavity that is
22:37essentially going to be empty but filled
22:39with yellow marrow so if you look at
22:41this guy right here you can see how you
22:43have this layer of compact bone
22:46let's get a different color
22:49you have a layer of compact bone right
22:51here
22:52and right here but yet you've got this
22:55internal middle layer that is empty
22:59right here so that's what's going on
23:01with your
23:02um shaft your ad diaphysis is
23:04essentially going to be a collar of bone
23:06with kind of a Hollow Middle that's
23:08going to be filled with marrow and then
23:10your
23:11epiphyses your outside
23:14ends of bones are going to consist of
23:16compact bone and spongy bone so as we
23:20look at these guys you will have this
23:22outside layer of compact
23:27of this compact bone
23:31but then you will have an inside layer
23:35of spongy so that will be found in both
23:39ends
23:40whereas this would be your outside layer
23:43is only that compact
23:45so that's kind of the difference between
23:46the two and then right at the point
23:48where they connect right here
23:51and right here will be the connection
23:53between the diaphysis and the epiphysis
23:55and you can see it right here so when
23:59we're looking at that connection point
24:01between the diaphysis and the epiphysis
24:03that is going to be called the
24:05epiphysilial line
24:09the epiphysilial line and when you're
24:12looking at this epiphycelial line it is
24:15essentially where you're going to have
24:16bone growth which we will talk about
24:18um but this is going to be the
24:19connection point between the epiphysis
24:22and the diaphysis is this epithelial
24:24line and it will happen on both sides
24:27so that's the structure of a long bone
24:30so you can see right here that this has
24:33taken the section of the bone and if
24:37this is my
24:39medullary cavity they've essentially
24:42chopped out this section right here and
24:46that is what you see so you can see how
24:48that is going to be the spongy bone
24:51okay so when we're looking at our gross
24:54anatomy of our long bone like we talked
24:56about with our connective tissue and
24:59like we talked about with our flat short
25:02and irregular there is going to be
25:04membranes that are covering the bones
25:10so we've talked about a couple different
25:12types you do need to know them all so
25:14the types of membranes that are going to
25:16be covering the bone there's two
25:20two types there's an internal and an
25:23external so looking at this the internal
25:26is going to be called your
25:28peripostium remember I said anything
25:31with an us is going to be bone osteum
25:34your periosteum this is going to be a
25:38White
25:40double layer membrane
25:43and it will actually cover the entire
25:46external surface of the bone
25:51so your entire bone is Saran wrapped in
25:54connective tissue called your periosteum
25:58this is going to be two layers so your
26:01periosteum remember is a double layer
26:03the most outer layer or the most
26:06external layer is going to be a fibrous
26:10type connective tissue
26:12so it's going to contain a lot of dense
26:16fibers it's an irregular connective
26:19tissue then you're going to have an
26:21inner layer
26:23and your inner layer is going to be
26:25essentially osteogenic cells so while
26:28it's fibrous connective tissue
26:32your inner layer is going to be
26:33osteogenic cells anytime you see Osteo
26:36remember it's a bone and genic means
26:38creation or Genesis production of so
26:42this is going to be a stem cell
26:46so it's a bone stem cell to produce bone
26:50cells so that's really really important
26:51so that means our external layer of our
26:55skin sorry our external layer of our
26:59um bone is covered with an entire Saran
27:02Wrap like quality it's a white double
27:04layer structure that goes all the way
27:06around the entire outside of your your
27:09um long bones and it's going to have two
27:11layers
27:12this fibrous layer is going to be the
27:14outer layer which is a connective tissue
27:16dense connective tissue and then this
27:19inner layer is actually going to be
27:21osteogenic cells so basically that means
27:24your inner layer is going to be
27:26producing new bone cells so to give an
27:30example of what that looks like here is
27:33my epiphysis here's my diaphysis I'm
27:36only going to do one just to make it
27:37easy this layer right here is going to
27:40be all the way around the outside of
27:44your bone
27:45so this is your
27:48right here this is your
27:50periosteum
27:52however your periosteum is two layers so
27:56the outside layer
27:59this green guy
28:01is going to be made up of your fibrous
28:04connective tissue
28:06whereas your inside layer which is going
28:09to be this red one
28:11is going to be made up of your
28:13osteogenic cells so if you're looking at
28:16it this way this inner layer that makes
28:19up your osteogenic cells is producing
28:21new cells all the time and it is a
28:24directly connected to the actual
28:26structure of the bone itself so that's
28:28actually very very very cool
28:30okay so you have your periosteum which
28:34is the external layer but then you're
28:37also going to have another type which is
28:39going to be your endosteum
28:42and your endosteum is going to be
28:46your covering your internal
28:50surfaces
28:52and so as it covers your internal bone
28:56surfaces
28:57it's going to essentially line all of
29:00your trabeculae
29:02and as it's lining all of the nooks and
29:05the crannies around your trabeculae
29:08it is covering the entire inside of your
29:11cell
29:13so your internal bones surface so that
29:16means every piece of your trabiculae is
29:18also going to be covered in Saran Wrap
29:20what's cool about this one is that this
29:22will also contain
29:25osteogenic cells so both your periosteum
29:29and your endosteum are going to contain
29:33cells that produce new bone cells so
29:37that's pretty cool to see that full
29:39circle so you can see right here how
29:41this is your bone and we're actually
29:42going to be peeling away your periosteum
29:46right there it's that outside white
29:47layer and your endosteum is going to be
29:49layering everything inside
29:51okay so when we're looking at the gross
29:54anatomy of your bones as well you also
29:57have the ability to store that red blood
30:01cells you also have the ability to
30:03produce those red blood cells so
30:05remember your bones are a
30:08hematopoietic tissue
30:10so they are a hemato
30:14poetic tissue which basically means that
30:18they have the ability to form new red
30:22blood cells
30:24with this structure this is actually
30:27going to happen in red marrow so inside
30:31your cells wherever you have red marrow
30:35which will be found within the
30:37trabecular cavities this is where you
30:40are going to have new blood cells formed
30:44it's going to be in this red mineral but
30:46the challenge is is red marrow is not
30:49always found in every single adult
30:52it is specifically really going to be
30:55found
30:56um this red marrow is highly found in
30:59newborns
31:02and when it's found in newborns it's
31:05going to be in the areas of your spongy
31:08bone no matter where it is
31:10so red marrow will be found in newborns
31:13and it will be all types of spongy bone
31:16whereas in adults it's going to be
31:18slightly different
31:20it's not in all spongy bone it's really
31:23only going to be the head of the femur
31:25you have two so one on the right and the
31:28left
31:29the head of the humerus
31:32so one is your thigh bone one is your
31:34arm
31:35your upper arm
31:38and some irregular so like your hip bone
31:44so that is where you will find so red
31:45marrow actually loses its wide
31:49overarching being found in all locations
31:52as you grow so newborns it's really only
31:54going to be found in spongy bone whereas
31:56an adult head of the femur humerus but
32:00also in some irregular bones
32:02so you also have a thing called yellow
32:03mirror which can converted to Red if you
32:06are considered anemic but um there's a
32:09process of homeostasis that has to go
32:11into that but in general red marrow is
32:13the type of tissue that produces new red
32:15blood cells and these are the areas
32:17where you can find it
32:21foreign